Auxiliary verbs could be called "helping verbs": they don't mean anything when they are alone, but when in sentence, they help complete the form and meaning of main verbs.
A. Auxiliaries do, have, and be.
1. The Auxiliary do, does, and did
The auxiliary do has the following forms:
| | Non-negative | Negative |
| Present | Do | Do not / don’t |
| Does | Does not / doesn’t | |
| Past | Did | Did not / didn’t |
In the simple present tense, do will function as an auxiliary to express the negative and to ask questions. (Does, however, is substituted for third-person, singular subjects in the present tense. The past tense did works with all persons, singular and plural.)
· I don't study at night.
· She doesn't work here anymore.
· Do you attend this school?
· Does he work here?
· Does she work here? No, she doesn't work here. (These verbs also work as "short answers," with the main verb omitted)
With "yes-no" questions, the form of do goes in front of the subject and the main verb comes after the subject:
· Did your grandmother know Truman?
· Do wildflowers grow in your back yard?
Forms of do are useful in expressing similarity and differences in conjunction with so and neither.
· My wife hates spinach and so does my son.
· My wife doesn't like spinach; neither do I.
Do is also helpful because it means you don't have to repeat the verb:
· Larry excelled in language studies; so did his brother.
· Raoul studies as hard as his sister does.
The so-called emphatic do has many uses in English.
a. To add emphasis to an entire sentence: "He does like spinach. He really does!"
b. To add emphasis to an imperative: "Do come in." (actually softens the command)
c. To add emphasis to a frequency adverb: "He never did understand his father." "She always does manage to hurt her mother's feelings."
d. To contradict a negative statement: "You didn't do your homework, did you?" "Oh, but I did finish it."
e. To ask a clarifying question about a previous negative statement: "Ridwell didn't take the tools." "Then who did take the tools?"
f. To indicate a strong concession: "Although the Clintons denied any wrong-doing, they did return some of the gifts."
In the absence of other modal auxiliaries, a form of do is used in question and negative constructions known as the get passive:
· Did Rinaldo get selected by the committee?
· The audience didn't get riled up by the politician.
2. The auxiliary have, has, and had
The auxiliary have has the following forms:
| | Non-negative | Negative |
| Base | Have / ‘ve | Have not/ ‘ve not / haven’t |
| -s form | Has / ‘s | Has not / ‘s not / hasn’t |
| Past | Had / ‘d | Had not / ‘d not / hadn’t |
| -ing form | Having | Not having |
| -ed participle | Had | - |
Forms of the verb to have are used to create tenses known as the present perfect and past perfect. The perfect tenses indicate that something has happened in the past; the present perfect indicating that something happened and might be continuing to happen, the past perfect indicating that something happened prior to something else happening.
To have is also in combination with other modal verbs to express probability and possibility in the past.
- As an affirmative statement, to have can express how certain you are that something happened (when combined with an appropriate modal + have + a past participle): "Georgia must have left already." "Clinton might have known about the gifts." "They may have voted already."
- As a negative statement, a modal is combined with not + have + a past participle to express how certain you are that something did not happen: "Clinton might not have known about the gifts." "I may not have been there at the time of the crime."
- To ask about possibility or probability in the past, a modal is combined with the subject + have + past participle: "Could Clinton have known about the gifts?"
- For short answers, a modal is combined with have: "Did Clinton know about this?" "I don't know. He may have." "The evidence is pretty positive. He must have."
To have (sometimes combined with to get) is used to express a logical inference:
- It's been raining all week; the basement has to be flooded by now.
- He hit his head on the doorway. He has got to be over seven feet tall!
Have is often combined with an infinitive to form an auxiliary whose meaning is similar to "must."
- I have to have a car like that!
- She has to pay her own tuition at college.
- He has to have been the first student to try that.
3. The auxiliary be
The auxiliary be is unique among English verbs in having eight different forms:
| Base | | Non-negative | Negative |
| present | 1st person singular | Am / ‘m | Am not / ‘m not |
| 3rd person singular | Is / ‘s | Is not / ‘s not / isn’t | |
| 2nd person,1st and 3rd person plural | Are / ‘re | Are not / ‘re not / aren’t | |
| past | 1st and 3rd person singular | Was | Was not / wasn’t |
| 2nd person, 1st and 3rd person plural | Were | Were not / weren’t | |
| -ing form | | Being | Not being |
| -ed participle | Been | - |
As an auxiliary verb, be has some grammatical functions, they are :
1. To make Present Progressive (be + ing - participle)
The present progressive tense is formed by two verbs, be (is/am/are) and the verb –ing. In present progressive, be is an auxiliary verb and it’s has no meaning but it must be used in present progressive form.
The present progressive describes activities or events in progress at a particular time, usually for a limited amount of time. It describes events that are currently in progress, or event that are going to take place in the future and about which the speaker feels quite certain.
- Present progressive describing an event in progress
For example:
· I am looking for an employee.
· She is studying English grammar.
- Present progressive with future time
For example:
· She is coming back tomorrow.
· I am going with him next week.
2. To make Passive Voice (be + past – participle)
Most passive constructions are formed with the auxiliary be and a past - participle, but some past participles are irregular verbs. The form of passive:
Be + past participle
For example :
· He is appointed as a head of department.
· The package was mailed by Maryam.
· We are helped by the teacher.
· This class is thought by John Smith. (Irregular Verb)
3. Be + infinitive
Be + infinitive construction is extremely important and can be used in the following ways :
- To convey orders or instructions.
For example:
· No one is to leave this building without the permission of the police. (No one must leave)
· He is to stay here till we return. ( He must stay)
- To convey a plan
For example:
· She is to be married next month.
· The expedition is to start in a week time.
4. Was/were +infinitive can express an idea of destiny
For example:
· They said goodbye, little knowing than they were never to meet again. (were destined never to meet)
· He received a blow on the head. It didn’t worry him at the time but it was to be very troublesome later.
5. Be about + infinitive express the immediate future.
For example :
· They are about to start. (They are just going to start/ They are on the point of starting)
Just can be added to make the future even more immediate.
For example:
· They are just about to leave.
· He was just about to dive when he saw the shark.
Be on the point of + verb-ing has the same meaning as be about + infinitive, but is a shade more immediate.
For example:
· They are on the point of buying the tickets.
· She is on the point of doing her homework.
B. Modal Auxiliaries
The modal auxiliaries are the following:
| Non-negative | Negative |
| Can Could | Cannot / can not / can’t |
| Could not / couldn’t | |
| May Might | May not / mayn’t |
| Might not / mightn’t | |
| Shall Should | Shall not / shan’t |
| Should not / shouldn’t | |
| Will / ‘ll Would / ‘d | Will not / ‘ll not / won’t |
| Would not / ‘d not / wouldn’t | |
| Must | Must not / mustn’t |
| Ought to | Ought not to / oughtn’t to |
| Used to | Used not to / usedn’t to / didn’t use to |
| Need | Need not / needn’t |
| Dare | Dare not / daren’t |
1. Uses of Shall and Will and Should
In England, shall is used to express the simple future for first person I and we, as in "Shall we meet by the river?" Will would be used in the simple future for all other persons. Using will in the first person would express determination on the part of the speaker, as in "We will finish this project by tonight, by golly!" Using shall in second and third persons would indicate some kind of promise about the subject, as in "This shall be revealed to you in good time." This usage is certainly acceptable in the U.S., although shall is used far less frequently. The distinction between the two is often obscured by the contraction 'll, which is the same for both verbs.
In the United States, we seldom use shall for anything other than polite questions (suggesting an element of permission) in the first-person:
· "Shall we go now?"
· "Shall I call a doctor for you?"
In the second sentence, many writers would use should instead, although shouldis somewhat more tentative than shall.) In the U.S., to express the future tense, the verb will is used in all other cases.
Shall is often used in formal situations (legal or legalistic documents, minutes to meetings, etc.) to express obligation, even with third-person and second-person constructions:
· The board of directors shall be responsible for payment to stockholders.
· The college president shall report financial shortfalls to the executive director each semester."
Should is usually replaced, nowadays, by would. It is still used, however, to mean "ought to" as in
· You really shouldn't do that.
· If you think that was amazing, you should have seen it last night.
In British English and very formal American English, one is apt to hear or readshould with the first-person pronouns in expressions of liking such as "I should prefer iced tea" and in tentative expressions of opinion such as
· I should imagine they'll vote Conservative.
· I should have thought so.
2. Uses of Can and Could
The modal auxiliary can is used
· to express ability (in the sense of being able to do something or knowing how to do something):
He can speak Spanish but he can't write it very well.· to expression permission (in the sense of being allowed or permitted to do something):
Can I talk to my friends in the library waiting room? (Note that can is less formal than may. Also, some writers will object to the use of canin this context.)· to express theoretical possibility:
American automobile makers can make better cars if they think there's a profit in it.The modal auxiliary could is used
· to express an ability in the past:
I could always beat you at tennis when we were kids.· to express past or future permission:
Could I bury my cat in your back yard?· to express present possibility:
We could always spend the afternoon just sitting around talking.· to express possibility or ability in contingent circumstances:
If he studied harder, he could pass this course.In expressing ability, can and could frequently also imply willingness: Can you help me with my homework?
3. Uses of May and Might
Two of the more troublesome modal auxiliaries are may and might. When used in the context of granting or seeking permission, might is the past tense of may. Might is considerably more tentative than may.
· May I leave class early?
· If I've finished all my work and I'm really quiet, might I leave early?
In the context of expressing possibility, may and might are interchangeable present and future forms and might + have + past participle is the past form:
· She might be my advisor next semester.
· She may be my advisor next semester.
· She might have advised me not to take biology.
Avoid confusing the sense of possibility in may with the implication of might,that a hypothetical situation has not in fact occurred. For instance, let's say there's been a helicopter crash at the airport. In his initial report, before all the facts are gathered, a newscaster could say that the pilot "may have been injured." After we discover that the pilot is in fact all right, the newscaster can now say that the pilot "might have been injured" because it is a hypothetical situation that has not occurred. Another example: a body had been identified after much work by a detective. It was reported that "without this painstaking work, the body may have remained unidentified." Since the body was, in fact, identified, might is clearly called for.
4. Uses of Will and Would
In certain contexts, will and would are virtually interchangeable, but there are differences. Notice that the contracted form 'll is very frequently used for will.
- Will can be used to express willingness:
· I'll wash the dishes if you dry.
· We're going to the movies. Will you join us?
- It can also express intention (especially in the first person):
· I'll do my exercises later on.
- And prediction:
· specific: The meeting will be over soon.
· timeless: Humidity will ruin my hairdo.
· habitual: The river will overflow its banks every spring.
- Would can also be used to express willingness:
· Would you please take off your hat?
- It can also express insistence (rather rare, and with a strong stress on the word "would"):
· Now you've ruined everything. You would act that way.
- And characteristic activity:
· customary: After work, he would walk to his home in West Hartford.
· typical (casual): She would cause the whole family to be late, every time.
- In a main clause, would can express a hypothetical meaning:
· My cocker spaniel would weigh a ton if I let her eat what she wants.
- Finally, would can express a sense of probability:
· I hear a whistle. That would be the five o'clock train.
5. Uses of Used to
The auxiliary verb construction used to is used to express an action that took place in the past, perhaps customarily, but now that action no longer customarily takes place:
· We used to take long vacation trips with the whole family.
The spelling of this verb is a problem for some people because the "-ed" ending quite naturally disappears in speaking: "We yoostoo take long trips." But it ought not to disappear in writing. There are exceptions, though. When the auxiliary is combined with another auxiliary, did, the past tense is carried by the new auxiliary and the "-ed" ending is dropped. This will often happen in the interrogative:
· Didn't you use to go jogging every morning before breakfast?
· It didn't use to be that way.
Used to can also be used to convey the sense of being accustomed to or familiar with something:
· The tire factory down the road really stinks, but we're used to it by now.
· I like these old sneakers; I'm used to them.
Used to is best reserved for colloquial usage; it has no place in formal or academic text.
6. Uses of must and have to
Must remains unchanged whatever be the tense or the number and person of the subject. It can refer to the present or future. It can point to the past only when it is used with the present perfect tense of the principal verb.
Compare:
§He must go home. (Future / present)
§He must have gone home. (Past)
§We must see the minister now. (Present)
§He must have seen the minister by now. (Past)
§You must file a writ petition. (Future)
- Uses of must
a. Must expresses compulsion or strong obligation. It is much stronger thanshould.
§He must apologize for his mistakes.
§They must pay the fine.
§You must be loyal to your country.
b. Necessity
§We must get up early and start on our way.
§Must we wait for them?
c. Probability or likelihood
Must can express probability or likelihood.
§He must be mad to do this.
§Oh, there is the door bell; that must be the postman.
d. Strong determination
Must signifies strong determination.
§I must have my own way.
We use have to to talk about strong obligation that comes from somewhere else, for example from you boss, you parents, a rule at school or work. Examples:
· I have to be home by ten. (My parents told me so.)
· I must be home by ten. I have a very difficult day tomorrow. (It is my own decision.)
· I have to get up early, because I start work at 8. (It is a rule.)
· I should get up early. (Now I stay in bed until lunchtime.)
6. Uses of ought to
Ought is different from other modal auxiliary verbs; it is followed by an infinitive with to.
Compare:
§ I ought to go.
§ I must go.
§ She must wait.
§ She ought to wait.
Ought expresses ideas such as duty, necessity, moral obligation etc. It is not as forceful as must, but it is stronger than should.
§ We ought to help the poor and the needy. (Duty)
§ You ought to exercise regularly. (Necessity)
§ She ought to be back by 10 o’clock.
When ought refers to past time, it is followed by the perfect infinitive.
§ You ought to have helped him.
7. Uses of need
As an auxiliary verb, need remains unchanged whatever be the person or number of the subject. The auxiliary need is common in questions and negative sentences.
· You need not ask my permission.
· She need not wait any longer. (NOT She needs not wait any longer.)
· They need not make an issue.
· You need not talk to them.
· Need I discuss this matter with her?
· Need we wait any longer?
The negative adverb hardly is often used with need.
· I need hardly say that I am very interested in this offer.
· We need hardly say that we are eagerly looking forward to meeting you.
Need is also used with only.
· You need only say what you want.
· She need only talk with him and the issue will be solved.
Need can be used in questions.
· Need I wait any longer?
· Need we write to her?
If the answer is in the negative, say ‘No, you need not’. If the answer is in the positive, say ‘Yes, you must’.
· Need I come again? No, you need not.
· Need I come again? Yes, you must. (NOT Yes, you need)
Need + Have + Past participle
When referring to the past time, need is followed by the perfect infinitive (have + past participle). This structure is used to talk about unnecessary things that happened.
She need not have lost her temper. (He lost her temper but that was unnecessary.)
You need not have refused that offer. (You refused that offer but you shouldn’t have done that.)8. Uses of dare
The auxiliary verb dare is followed by an infinitive without to. The auxiliary dare is common in questions and negative sentences. It doesn’t have forms like dares or dared. Questions and negatives are made without do.
· He dare not do so. (NOT He dares not do so.)
· She dare not take such a risk. (NOT She dares not to take such a risk.)
· Dare she say that to him?
· How dare he do such a thing?
Sometimes we use dare + noun + to + verb in the infinitive when we want to challenge someone to do something .
· I dare you to climb to the top of that tree!
( = I challenge you to do it! / // I don't think you can do it! /// I don't think you have the courage to do it . )
· Don't you dare climb that tree!you might fall off !
( = you should't climb that tree because it is too dangerous! ) · Don't you dare dirty the kitchen! Your mother will kill you if you do!
( = your mother does not permit you to dirty the kitchen! ) · How dare you take money from your father's wallet!
( = You have taken money and you are not permitted to do so! )
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